India and South East Asia : Public Diplomacy between Two Regions

Ms. Aulia Asri
May 23
14 min read

India possesses a vibrant and varied cultural heritage that has reached many parts of the world through channels such as trade, migration, and its religious and cultural impact. Its cultural ties with Southeast Asia date back to ancient history and have been notably profound. India's influence in the region spans multiple domains, including culture, commerce, religion, and political interactions. These cultural links between India and Southeast Asia are especially important and have deep historical roots.

India’s impact on Southeast Asia extended beyond culture to include trade, commerce, religion, and political ties. The earliest signs of India’s cultural influence in the region are found in inscriptions from the Pallava dynasty of South India, dating back to the 3rd century CE. These records show that the Pallava rulers had diplomatic connections with the Funan Empire, known as the earliest kingdom in Southeast Asia. Southeast Asia comprises the mainland countries located east of India and south of China, as well as the islands of the Malay Archipelago, such as Indonesia, Singapore, and East Malaysia. Both Hinduism and Buddhism were practiced widely across parts of Southeast Asia as early as the first century CE.

The current study is important for several reasons. First, Southeast Asia holds strategic value for India’s foreign policy, particularly under the "Act East" policy. Second, India’s rich cultural heritage plays a crucial role in its soft power strategy, making it vital to understand how these cultural assets are used to strengthen bilateral ties and improve India’s image in the region. Third, Southeast Asia presents significant economic prospects, and exploring India’s soft power diplomacy can help uncover opportunities for economic collaboration that align with its cultural strengths. Additionally, soft power efforts support regional stability by promoting people-to-people connections, highlighting the need to assess their effects. Finally, the experiences gained from India’s soft power diplomacy in Southeast Asia provide valuable lessons for global diplomacy and engaging effectively with diverse cultures and societies.

India’s approach to regional engagement has notably shifted, with the Act East policy now playing a central role in shaping its Indo-Pacific vision. While India’s relations with Southeast Asian nations have strengthened, the focus has largely been on areas such as healthcare, education, agriculture, trade and investment, technology, green energy, and cultural exchange. However, a survey conducted by the ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute in Singapore indicated that India is seen as one of the less strategically significant partners by ASEAN countries. Among ASEAN’s 11 dialogue partners, India was ranked ninth in terms of regional influence and leadership. Notably, respondents from Myanmar and Singapore placed India fifth and sixth, respectively, reflecting strong historical and cultural ties. In contrast, India was ranked ninth in strategic relevance by respondents from Cambodia, Laos, the Philippines, and Vietnam.

Cultural Connection

Southeast Asian countries share deep historical, cultural, and religious connections with India, with Indian epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata continuing to shape local consciousness. The Ramayana, in particular, is woven into the fabric of local societies through various expressions, including city names, folklore, myths, traditional arts, and even contemporary lifestyles. Despite transformations in narrative and presentation over time, many Southeast Asian cultures still reflect multiple versions of Rama and the Ramayana, underscoring their enduring link to Indian cultural and religious traditions. Hinduism is believed to have reached the region around 20 BCE, predating Buddhism, brought by maritime traders from India’s eastern coast—especially the Kalinga region (modern Odisha). Hindu influence remains evident today in countries like Indonesia and Malaysia, where the concept of ‘Greater India’ is echoed in legends involving Java and Sumatra. Additionally, the Khmer dynasty in Cambodia adopted Hinduism and underwent a significant process of Indianization, marked by the use of Sanskrit, the integration of the Ramayana, and the construction of Hindu temples.

On both social and political fronts, Indian merchants played a significant role in shaping political structures in Southeast Asia modeled after Indian systems. This was made possible through the presence of Brahmins and Buddhist monks who accompanied Indian traders, bringing with them not only their religious beliefs but also Indian art, architecture, political concepts, and a wealth of sacred literature. These cultural exchanges deeply influenced the region’s political and social fabric, as well as its architectural heritage—evident in iconic sites like Angkor, Borobudur, and Prambanan. The cultural interaction was reciprocal; while Indians journeyed to Southeast Asia, many Southeast Asian followers of Hinduism and Buddhism also traveled to sacred pilgrimage sites across India.

India has shared historically strong ties with Southeast Asian nations. Religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and later Islam have played significant roles in uniting India with the region over centuries. Beyond religion, Indian trade practices, rituals, scriptures, and literary traditions also spread widely across Southeast Asia. Various Indian influences, including royal customs, administrative systems, and the Manusmriti (Code of Manu), were introduced to these societies. This widespread cultural transmission led to what is often referred to as the "Indianisation" of the region. The earliest Indianised kingdoms emerged in areas such as the Malay Peninsula, Cambodia, Annan, and the islands of Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and Bali.

India has successfully maintained strong relations with its neighboring countries, particularly those in Southeast Asia. The ties between India and the Southeast Asian nations—now represented by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)—are deeply rooted in ancient Indic civilizations, which had a profound influence on the region. These early connections were primarily built on shared religious, cultural, and philosophical foundations, which have since expanded to include broader areas of cooperation. Historically, India’s relationship with Southeast Asia was driven by "commerce, culture, and community." Moreover, both India and ASEAN countries share a common history of colonial oppression, which not only suppressed their peoples and cultures but also disrupted centuries-old ties based on Indic traditions. As noted by Mun and Yong (2009), during the decline of European imperialism and the rise of Asian nationalism, the peoples of India and Southeast Asia began to reclaim their cultural identities. Following independence, both India and ASEAN countries initiated renewed efforts to rebuild and strengthen their connections by reaffirming shared Indic values. Before the spread of Islam in the region, India and Southeast Asia shared historical roots, literature, and national symbols—all of which continue to inspire efforts toward building a community with common goals and a shared destiny.

India’s cultural and social influence on Southeast Asia is evident in many areas, including literature, language, art, architecture, music, dance, and religion. The most notable impact was in religion, especially Buddhism and Hinduism. The transmission of Buddhism from India to Southeast Asia was a major cultural development, resulting in the foundation of many Buddhist monasteries across the region. Hinduism spread mainly through trade and cultural interactions, leading to its fusion with local traditions and beliefs.

Public Diplomacy two Regions

Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s foreign policy primarily aims to elevate India’s global stature and reputation. The goal is to position India as a leading “soft power” rather than merely a middle-income nation or a passive observer on the world stage. Modi’s approach has shifted from the traditional “Panchsheel” principles to the new concept of “Panchamrit,” which has been central to India’s cultural diplomacy efforts over the past decade. The key objectives of “Panchamrit” are: 1) Upholding dignity and honor (Samman); 2) Enhancing engagement and dialogue (Samvad); 3) Promoting shared prosperity (Samriddhi); 4) Ensuring regional and global security (Suraksha); and 5) Strengthening the connection between culture and civilization (Sanskritievam Sabhyata).

The Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) defines soft power as the ability to influence others through non-coercive methods, especially by leveraging cultural heritage. Since its establishment in 1950, the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) has played a crucial role in fostering cultural ties and advancing cultural diplomacy. The Indian government recognizes the significance of soft power, as reflected in the recent 16th report by the Committee on External Affairs. This report calls for the creation of a formal policy and a "Soft Power Matrix" to assess the impact of India’s soft power initiatives. It also stresses the importance of better coordination between the MEA and other agencies involved in cultural diplomacy.

India, with its rich cultural heritage and lively traditions, holds considerable soft power that spans areas such as art, literature, philosophy, ancient history, and diverse cuisine. This natural soft power enables India to engage effectively in cultural diplomacy. By nurturing its cultural strengths, India can create meaningful connections with other countries, promoting cooperation and improving its global reputation. The concept of "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam" (the world is one family) reflects India’s deep-rooted belief in global unity and cultural exchange, emphasizing its long-standing tradition of building international bonds. India’s soft power strategy extends beyond cultural sharing and is built upon five interconnected pillars: Samman (Dignity), Samvaad (Dialogue), Samriddhi (Shared Prosperity), Suraksha (Regional and Global Security), and Sanskriti evam Sabhyata (Cultural and Civilizational Links).

Yoga
A key element of India’s cultural diplomacy is the global promotion of yoga and meditation, which has gained widespread recognition. The global embrace of yoga, especially marked by the observance of International Yoga Day on June 21st, showcases India’s efforts to spread wellness and mindfulness worldwide. In Southeast Asia, yoga has become popular as a means to enhance physical health, mental well-being, and spiritual development. Supported by the Indian government and cultural institutions, numerous yoga centers, workshops, and events regularly take place across the region, strengthening people-to-people ties and cultural exchange. Both yoga and Buddhism have significantly influenced wellness tourism, offering a pathway for economic growth and sustainability. However, the commercialization of these practices and their restricted accessibility highlight some contradictions in the industry’s growth. Analysis of wellness tourism related to yoga and Buddhism reveals several important trends. Notably, wellness tourism acts as a major driver of economic development and is increasingly regarded as a foundational component of sustainable development strategies for many countries.
Cinema
Indian cinema, especially Bollywood, is a powerful soft power tool with a vast international audience. Indian films have successfully reached viewers across many regions, fostering cross-cultural connections and extending India’s influence worldwide. Bollywood movies enjoy popularity in areas ranging from the Middle East and North Africa to Central and Southeast Asia. In the 1990s, Bollywood gained significant popularity in Indonesia, with the 1998 film Kuchh Kuchh Hota Hai (K2H2), starring Shah Rukh Khan, capturing the nation’s imagination. This film reportedly outperformed Hollywood’s Titanic in Indonesia that same year. Shah Rukh Khan continues to be a major star in Malaysia, where many of his films were shot, and local authorities even honored him to promote tourism. Vietnam is eager to attract Bollywood productions, while Thailand has become a favored filming location for Indian movies, partly due to the support of its sizable Sikh community. Even Timor-Leste has embraced Bollywood, with Shah Rukh Khan again playing a key role in popularizing Indian films and music there.
Language, Literature, and Art
India’s rich literary and artistic heritage significantly enhances its soft power. Celebrated authors like Rabindranath Tagore and R.K. Narayan have gained international recognition, while Indian classical dance forms have mesmerized audiences globally, strengthening India’s cultural influence. However, language barriers can limit cultural exchange and mutual understanding. To address this, India could introduce language programs for Southeast Asian languages such as Indonesian, Thai, and Vietnamese, while encouraging reciprocal learning of Indian languages. This would promote better communication and deepen cultural ties between the regions. According to a report by the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR), interest in Indian language courses is rising in Southeast Asia, with Hindi becoming especially popular in Indonesia in recent years. The Indian government could capitalize on this growing demand by expanding language programs and offering scholarships to students from Southeast Asian countries.
Cuisine
Indian cuisine, renowned for its diverse flavors and regional varieties, has gained increasing popularity worldwide, with Indian restaurants becoming common in many countries. This culinary appeal serves as another important channel through which India projects its soft power. The global rise of Indian food can be linked to factors such as the growth of Indian diaspora communities, rising interest in exotic and ethnic cuisines, and active promotion by the Indian government and food industry. For example, the Ministry of Tourism established the "Indian Culinary Institute" to train chefs in Indian cuisine and support the global expansion of Indian restaurants. Many Indian chefs have successfully opened restaurants across the globe, including in Southeast Asia, helping to popularize Indian food and culture. Indian cuisine is particularly well-loved in Southeast Asia, owing to the region’s deep Hindu and Buddhist cultural influences. It has notably influenced Malaysian cooking and is also highly favored in Singapore, where fusion dishes blending traditional Singaporean and Indian flavors are popular. Furthermore, the spread of vegetarianism in other parts of Asia is often attributed to Hindu and Buddhist traditions originating in India.
ICCR
The Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR), functioning under the Ministry of External Affairs, plays a crucial role in advancing India’s soft power goals. By facilitating cultural exchanges, offering scholarships, and organizing performances by Indian artists abroad, the ICCR actively showcases India’s cultural heritage and builds international goodwill. The council has broadened its influence by setting up cultural centers in more than 35 countries across various regions. In collaboration with the Ministries of External Affairs and Culture, the Indian government is working to enhance India’s soft power by signing numerous bilateral cultural agreements and implementing cultural exchange programs with different countries.
Education
India’s educational institutions, including renowned universities like the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs), attract a large number of international students. Moreover, the widespread use of English as a global language further enhances India’s soft power influence. Overall, the study emphasizes how India effectively leverages its cultural heritage, academic excellence, and diplomatic efforts to strengthen its soft power on the global stage. These insights underline the importance of continued investment in cultural promotion and educational diplomacy to maintain and expand India’s international presence. The Government of India supports Southeast Asian students and scholars through various fellowship programs such as the Commonwealth Scholarship Scheme, Cultural Exchange Programme, and the Colombo Plan. The Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) also offers substantial scholarships under multiple schemes, including the General Cultural Scholarship Scheme (GCSS), which allocates 55 scholarships to Southeast Asian countries—10 for Thailand, 1 for Malaysia, 6 for Vietnam, and 20 for Indonesia. Scholarships are also provided to countries in the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multisectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC). Additionally, 50 scholarships are available under the Mekong-Ganga Cooperation (MGC) scheme. Through the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation Programme (ITEC), India offers technical assistance to 156 countries. A key part of this assistance includes training nominees from ITEC partner countries and sending cultural delegations abroad to introduce and connect people to Indian culture and traditions.
Diaspora
India’s extensive diaspora is regarded as a significant asset in its diplomatic efforts. Acknowledging the importance of active engagement, the report suggests strengthening connections with the Indian diaspora and utilizing their potential to promote Indian culture and national interests through initiatives supported by Indian diplomatic missions worldwide. Across the globe, members of the Indian diaspora have excelled in various fields, contributing to the cultural, economic, and intellectual landscapes of their host countries. In today’s globalized and interconnected world, diasporas can serve as powerful strategic tools and communication channels to advance foreign policy, particularly when they hold economic or political influence in major global centers. The Indian diaspora also plays a vital role in Southeast Asia, where over 4 million individuals of Indian origin reside. Furthermore, India’s North-East region is seen as a key gateway to Southeast Asia, fostering deep-rooted people-to-people ties that support broader regional engagement.
Covid-19
The COVID-19 pandemic presents India with a strategic opportunity to enhance its public diplomacy in Southeast Asia, demonstrating both its commitment and capacity to engage in mutually beneficial collaborations. This can help expand the scope of the Act East Policy (AEP) and strengthen India's credibility in leading future regional initiatives. One crucial area for deeper India-ASEAN cooperation is public health. India holds a significant global position in the pharmaceutical industry, supported by a vast pool of skilled scientists and engineers capable of advancing the sector further. As the world's largest supplier of generic medicines—accounting for 20% of global exports by volume—India is well-placed to take a leading role in the production of COVID-19 vaccines once they are fully developed. The country is actively participating in ongoing vaccine research and has the capability to manufacture vaccines at affordable costs, as demonstrated with previous vaccines. This manufacturing capacity could serve as a foundation for health sector cooperation with ASEAN nations, enhancing public welfare across the region. Despite these strengths, India’s outreach to ASEAN during the pandemic has appeared limited. Prime Minister Narendra Modi has directly engaged with leaders of several ASEAN nations to address health and economic concerns, but broader engagement remains lacking. Nonetheless, India has provided hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) tablets to Malaysia and has received pandemic-related support from Singapore, highlighting some bilateral cooperation during this period.
Tourism
The Committee emphasizes the need to expand India's overseas tourism offices to enable a more focused and strategic promotion of Indian tourism. This approach involves customizing marketing efforts to suit the unique interests and preferences of individual countries. As part of regional collaboration, India and ASEAN signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on tourism cooperation in 2012, followed by a protocol amendment in 2013. These agreements aim to facilitate concrete, action-oriented partnerships in the tourism sector. Despite these efforts, there remains a significant imbalance in tourist flows. While approximately 4.67 million Indian tourists visited ASEAN nations in 2018, the number of ASEAN tourists traveling to India remains relatively low compared to the overall volume of international visitors to the country. This gap highlights the need for stronger promotional campaigns and enhanced connectivity to attract more visitors from Southeast Asia to India.

Challenges

Despite its efforts, India faces significant challenges in Southeast Asia from international competitors, particularly China. China poses strong competition in the use of Buddhism as a soft power tool, leveraging its extensive promotion of Buddhist heritage as part of its broader Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). The BRI, though primarily infrastructure-focused, also includes cultural diplomacy elements aimed at increasing China's influence across the region. Nevertheless, beyond institutional and political relations, ASEAN and India share deep-rooted historical, cultural, and religious connections. This longstanding relationship provides a robust foundation for collaboration. The ASEAN-India partnership holds great potential to shape regional norms, influence development trajectories, and offer a unifying vision—helping to fill the existing void in regional leadership and collective strategic direction.

A significant obstacle to India's enhanced presence in Southeast Asia is the dominant influence of both China and the United States. Over the past several decades, ASEAN has largely viewed China as a key economic partner and the United States as its principal security guarantor. Although the U.S. has recently intensified efforts to counterbalance China's influence, particularly through strategic isolation, China remains ASEAN's largest trading partner for the 13th consecutive year. Furthermore, the expansion of China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) has further solidified its economic and infrastructural ties with ASEAN member states, thereby strengthening its regional foothold and making it increasingly challenging for India to assert a more prominent role.

Opportunities

India has multiple opportunities to promote cultural tourism in Southeast Asia. First, improving infrastructure—particularly in transport connectivity and hospitality services—is essential to attract a larger number of Southeast Asian tourists. Enhanced infrastructure not only boosts global tourism appeal but also strengthens India’s competitiveness against China’s advanced tourism facilities. Second, India should actively collaborate with Southeast Asian nations to co-host Buddhist festivals, exhibitions, and cultural exchange programs. Such initiatives would reinforce diplomatic ties and foster mutual cultural appreciation. Additionally, expanding India’s digital outreach through virtual tours, documentaries on Buddhist heritage sites, and targeted online campaigns can significantly enhance global visibility and position India as a premier destination for Buddhist tourism. These measures would collectively serve to counterbalance China’s growing influence and affirm India’s role as a leading force in Buddhist cultural tourism.

Looking ahead, the future of India’s partnership with Southeast Asia appears promising. As one of the world's fastest-growing regions with a burgeoning middle class and dynamic economies, Southeast Asia offers India vast opportunities for collaboration. India’s strategic geographic location and deepening economic and cultural ties with the region provide a strong foundation for sustained engagement. Expanding cooperation in sectors such as defense, infrastructure, digital technology, and cultural exchange will further solidify this partnership. Moreover, shared commitments to renewable energy, technological innovation, and sustainable development underscore the potential for a robust and mutually beneficial relationship.

Over the next five years, a strategic priority for ASEAN and India will be the consolidation of their regional influence through the strategic use of soft power. As shifting regional power dynamics create new geopolitical opportunities, both ASEAN and India are well-positioned to play a more assertive role in shaping the Indo-Pacific’s security and political architecture. This evolving partnership has the potential to serve as a vital counterbalance to the competing influences of dominant global powers, particularly the United States and China. Beyond formal institutional and political ties, ASEAN and India are bound by deep-rooted historical, cultural, and religious connections, which form the foundation for a resilient and multidimensional partnership. By leveraging their shared civilizational heritage and soft power assets, ASEAN and India can jointly shape regional norms, influence developmental trajectories, and provide a collaborative model of leadership that addresses the current vacuum in strategic vision and cooperative governance in the Indo-Pacific region.

To bolster its soft power, India must undertake several strategic initiatives. First, the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) should receive expanded funding and be more deeply integrated into India’s diplomatic missions. Embassies must evolve into cultural hubs, not merely visa centers. Second, the global promotion of Bollywood and the broader Indian entertainment industry should be systematized through international film festivals, co-production treaties, and partnerships with platforms like Netflix and Amazon Prime, especially in markets where Indian cinema already enjoys popularity. Third, India should counter China’s expanding media influence by enhancing its international broadcasting footprint. Strengthening DD India, launching multilingual news services, and supporting private Indian media houses in their global operations are crucial steps. Fourth, India’s development initiatives abroad—particularly in Africa and Southeast Asia—should be paired with structured cultural programs such as language institutes, academic collaborations, and cultural centers. Finally, India must intensify cultural engagement within South Asia by fostering joint educational and literary initiatives with neighbors like Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Sri Lanka. Expanding scholarships and student exchange programs will further strengthen people-to-people ties and regional solidarity.

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India and South East Asia : Public Diplomacy between Two Regions

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